Paleoclimate observations obtained from tree rings or the geochemical composition of speleothems, ice and sediments provide an out-of-sample validation of climate models. However, comparing the output of climate models directly with the paleoclimate observations is difficult: (1) they are often expressed in different quantities (i.e., temperature vs ring width), (2) paleoclimate observations have large time uncertainties, (3) paleoclimate observations often incorporate more than one environmental signal (i.e., temperature AND moisture).
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